Published in 1751, Hume's "Essay Concerning Human Understanding" became so significant that it was said to have awakened Kant from his 'dogmatic slumbers'.
As an amendment of his earlier Doctrine "A Treatise of Human Nature" which sadly "fell dead-born to the press", Hume's "Essay" was instead a shorter and more analytical piece.
I hope my analysis proves helpful to anyone else struggling with the Scottish Empiricists philosophy...
Section I
"Of Different Species Of Philosophy"
"Be a philosopher; but amidst all your philosophy; be still a man"
Hume's insight into the science of Human Nature, in which he considers man 'born for action'.
It is suggested that he believes Human Nature to be Abstract for it 'moulds the heart and affections'. It is derived entirely from observation and the way we perceive objects outside our knowledge. He explains how our perception is 'influenced by taste and sentiment', but even then, he believes our senses to be deceptive, much like that of Cartesian philosophy.
Our observations educate us on 'Common Life' - the differerences between vice and virtue, for example.
Section II
"Of The Origin Of Ideas"
"... even the colours of poetry can never paint natural objects"
The difference between Ideas and Impressions. He endeavours to say that 'there is considerable difference between perceptions of the mind'.
Ideas are perceived as the concrete objects associated with a thought. Impressions, on the other hand, are more abstract, a 'faint' image or a feeling, such a love or hate.
According to Hume, we are able to conceive of 'virtue' and therefore the idea of a 'virtuous' God appears from the 'operation of our own minds' - "all our ideas are copies of impressions" - the Abstract.
Section III
"Of Association Of Ideas"
In this section, Hume attempts to identify the 'principles of association', namely Cause and Effect, of which, he is highly Sceptic.
Section IV
"Sceptical Doubts Concerning The Operations Of The Understanding"
Part I
The 'objects of human reason' - Relations Of Ideas and Matters Of Fact.
Relations Of Ideas, Hume believes, are discoverable by thought alone. But when it comes to Matters Of Fact, however, there is no evidence for their truth. Hume believes Cause and Effect remains in this category as our knowledge of it can ONLY be derived from experience.
"In all our reasonings the mind can never find the effect in the supposed cause"
Part II
If our understanding of Causation is based on experience, then our understanding of it MUST be based on an impression - this 'impression' is merely a consequence drawn by the mind. As, according to Hume, we learn the qualities of natural objects by observing the effects.
Section V
"Sceptical Solution Of These Doubts"
Part I
"Nothing is more free than the imagination of man... It can feign a train of events, with all the appearance of reality, conceive them as existent and paint them out with every circumstance that belongs to historical fact"
Throughout 'Common Life', we observe a continual succession of objects and events, which are both derived from Custom or Habit. Therefore, we are never able to conceive the idea of Cause and Effect. Instead, the two are constantly conjoined - understanding being beyond our memory and senses - by Natural Instincts which we are unable to prevent.
Part II
An exploration into the difference between Fiction and Belief.
To Hume, the definition of Belief proves never experiencing a particular feeling. Belief is nothing but a 'steady conception' of an object which derives from a conjunction (as mentioned above).
Contiguity - we 'can never excite our ideas of home unless we believe that it really exists'. Much like The Cogito "I think therefore I am", our belief that something exists in our mind often makes it concrete in reality.
This is described as a 'pre-established harmony' between the course of nature and the succession of our ideas - Instinct.
"This transition of thought from cause to effect proceeds not from reason but derives altogether from custom and experience"
Section VI
"Of Probability"
"There are some causes, which are entirely uniform and constant in producing a particular effect... production of motion by impulse and gravity is a universal law... admitted of no exception"
The philosophy that 'secret causes' prevent certain operations. This, Hume states, is down to 'our ignorance of the real cause of any event', as he believes there is no such thing as Chance.
Section VIII
"Of The Idea Of Necessary Connection"
Part I
"... the finer sentiments of the mind and the various agitations of the passion, though really in themselves distinct, easily escape us"
Hume believed the Mathematical Sciences to always be 'clear' and 'determinate'. They had been reduced to a state of equality through Ambiguity - the 'obscurity' of ideas and the 'ambiguity' of the terms that are felt by our external or internal senses.
Hume's questioning of the union of the soul with the body, as external objects indicate no necessary connection, yet we are still aware of an internal force.
Here, I would like to reference Leibniz's "Monadology". His theory was based on the notion of substance - specifically that we are made up of a infinite number of substances, or "Monads", which contain physical properties, but only when viewed Abstractly. Here, he denies the reality of matter as, like Hume, he believed that appearances could be deceptive.
"The scenes of the universe are continually shifting, and one object follows another in an uninterrupted succession; but the power of force which actuates the whole machine is entirely concealed from us"
Part II
Do we acquire any idea of the mind? If not, how do we know that it exists?
It appears through Hume's philosophy, that there is no logical connection between Cause and Effect - only in 'uniform' instances can we begin to conceive the idea of one event following another.
"Every idea is copied from some preceding impression or sentiment; and where we cannot find any impression we may be certain that there is no idea"
Section VIII
"Of Liberty And Necessity"
Part I
"It is universally allowed that matter... is actuated by a necessary force and that every natural effect is so precisely determined by the energy of its cause that no other effect... could possibly have resulted from it... there is great uniformity among the actions on men... and that human nature remains the same in its principles and operations"
The same motives always produce the same actions and the same events follow the same causes, of which, this Uniformity plays no part in Nature. Uniformity is derivative of Neccessity.
Liberty, refers to actions according to the Will - the idea that 'nothing exists without a cause' - which, to Hume, is very Matter of Fact.
Part II
"When an opinion leads to absurdities, then it is false"
The principles of Human Laws are momentary, therefore, they are founded on reward and punishment.
He describes God as 'author' who judges all actions (moral and physical) - Hume follows the ancient Stoic belief that Evil's are good to the universe. Therefore, in Hume's world, Liberty is essential to Morality.
Section IX
"Of The Reason Of Animals"
It is Hume's belief that animals, as well as men, learn from experience - they observe and rely heavily on their instincts.
Section X
"Of Miracles"
Part I
"A miracle is a violation of the laws of nature"
Hume is strongly opposed to the idea of Uniformity in Natural Law and therefore, is against the religious concept of Miracles - according to Hume, there MUST be a uniform experience against every miraculous event.
Part II
"That no testimony is sufficient to establish a miracle... that its falsehood would be more miraculous that the fact which it endeavours to establish"
Through his analysis of Miracles, Hume attempts to distinguish truth from falsehood. It is experience alone that provides proof. And that surrounding Miracles is often Sceptical.
Section XI
"Of A Particular Providence And Of A Future State"
"... the philosophers, not satisfied with the traditions of your forefathers and priests, indulge in rash curiousity by trying to see how far they can establish religion upon principles of reason"
Belief in God is considered 'natural' in the eyes of Hume, as he is 'author' and controls the actions of man. His punishment of the bad and rewarding of the good leads us to Reason which can only be drawn from effects and causes. Therefore, he acts as a 'superior intelligence' or what Hume calls, "The Deity".
Section XII
"Of The Academical Or Sceptical Philosophy"
"Descartes recommends a univeral doubt. But were such a doubt possible... it would be incurable, as having nothing from which to reason"
Hume's Philosophy is almost entirely Sceptic in terms of the senses. It is his firm belief that we correct the senses only by reason. Men are guided by Natural Instinct from which they are surrounded by different perceptions and 'the mind has never anything present to it but the perceptions...'
"Thus the first philosophical objection to the evidence of our senses is that if such is rested on instinct, then it is contrary to reason, if rested on reason then it is contrary to natural instincts"
Quotes sourced from:
Additional Sources:
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Enquiry_Concerning_Human_Understanding
- Russell, Bertrand "History Of Western Philosophy" (2009)
No comments:
Post a Comment