L1: "Science and Certainty"

BACON, NEWTON, EINSTEIN.

"Mechanistic Materialists" - The world as a machine.

Science as the search for the truth. The separation of Mind and Reality. Two forms of knowledge according to KANT (1724-1804). Apriori and Aposteriori. One true "by definition". The other learned through experience.

Object ---> Phenomena (perceived) ---> Noumena (unperceived) 

When an object is unperceived, "noumenal", it becomes a "thing-in-itself". SCHOPENHAUER (1788-1860) believed in the world as a "thing in itself", whereby, it is necessary for existence.

The Cartesian belief of Solopsism. The idea that only you exist and everything else is a dream. "I think, therefore I am". Apriori reasoning of the phenomenal, external world.

Modern Theoretical Physics. The idea that there was no time before time. We view the world through "space time goggles". We see the world in 3D because we, ourselves, are 3D beings. Time as a mental phenomena. [EINSTEIN] - "The Verification Principle" "The truth is of any proposition is the way in which you verify". Supportive of BACON'S inductive method.

NEWTON. The laws of nature from nature itself. Knowledge is objective and independent from perception. Apriori.

Journalists taught to "play dumb". We can know nothing for certain. Aposteriori reasoning of deduction, not induction.

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"The Rise of Science" (pages 484-496)

COPERNICUS (1473-1543)

Theory that sun is at the centre of the universe. All motions are circular and uniform. Named Epicycles. "De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium" (1543). The Heliocentric Theory. Later revived by GALILEO.

"It is not what the man of science believes that distinguishes him, but how and why he believes it" (page 486)

KEPLER (1571-1630)

Three Laws of Planetary Motion:
1. Elliptic orbits.
- All motions are circular and move freely without being pushed or pulled.
- "A perfect body must move in a perfect figure" (page 488)
2. Equal areas, Equal times.
- Planet moves faster when nearest the sun and slowest when farther from it.
3. Revolution of Planet.
- Distance of planet from sun and length of year the same for all planets.

GALILEO (1564-1642)

"Law of Inertia". Theory of "acceleration". A single body moving uniformly in a circle at all times with acceleration towards the centre. Any change that occurs down to some action of "force".

The "Law of Falling Bodies". Feathers fall as fast as lead. Horizontal velocity remains a constant. Vertical velocity grows according to the law.

Invention of the Telescope. Discovered that a milkyway consists of a multitude of separate stars. Discovered the phases of Venus and the satellites of Jupiter - corresponds to KEPLER'S Law (above).

NEWTON (1642-1727)

The "Law of Gravitation". "Principia" (1687). Theory that the Earth was a minor planet designed for the good of small creatures. Detached from ancient way of thinking. Everything moves without the need for Divine Intervention.

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"Francis Bacon" (pages 496-500)

FRANCIS BACON (1561-1626)

Inductive method. Pro-causation. Rejection of The Heliocentric Theory.

"Induction by simple enumeration" (page 498)

Knowledge is power. "The Advancement of Learning" (1605). Mankind has power over nature through scientific discovery. Philosophy depended upon Reason. "Double Truth" - Reason and Revelation. Theology uses Reason to prove existence of God.

"Idols" - Bad habits of the mind that cause error.
1. "Idols of the Tribe" - Human Nature.
2. "Idols of the Cave" - Personal Prejudices.
3. "Idols of the Market Place" - Language. Meaning and Association.
4. "Idols of the Theatre" - Systems of Thought.

Source:
Russell, Bertrand "The History of Western Philosophy" (2009)

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"Epistemology" (pages 144-168)

The "study of the source, nature, and limitations of knowledge"
- [Collins Pocket English Dictionary, 1996]

JOHN STUART MILL (1806-1873)

Empiricist. "System of Logic" (1843). All knowledge is derived from experience.

"Results of observations and experiences, founded... on the evidence of the senses" (page 144)

Arithmetic an empirical science based on inductive truth.

"The sums of equals are equals" (page 145)

JOHN HENRY NEWMAN (1801-1890)

Empiricist. "Grammar of Assent" (1870). Inference and Assent. "Absolute Assent" supported by act of intuition. No degree of Assent. Aposteriori. To be certain of something is to believe in its truth. Certainty.

"The only direct acquaintance... with things outside ourselves... comes through our senses; to think that we have faculties for direct knowledge of immaterial things is mere superstition" (page 145)

C.S. PIERCE (1839-1914)

"Illustrations of the Logic of Science" (1878)
1. "The Fixation of Belief" - Inquiry originates in doubt and ends in belief.
2. "How to Make our Ideas Clear" - Belief as something we are aware of. Appeases doubt. Nature of Habit.

1. Method of Tenacity.
- Habit. We read newspaper that confirms our political belief.
2. Method of Authority.
- "Moral Terrorism". Belief in conflict. No regulation.
3. Apriori.
- Based on FACT.
4. Scientific Method.
- Reality independent from Mind.
- Rejection of DESCARTES Scepticism.

"Any man, if he has sufficient experience and reason enough about it, will be led to the one true conclusion" (page 153)
  1. Inference (Perceived)
2. Deduction (Habit or Association)
3. Hypothesis (Conclusion)

GOTTLOB FREGE (1848-1925)

Logic, Psychology and Epistemology. "Begriffss-chrift" ("Concept-Script", 1879). Arithmetic concerned with truth.

Apriori - Proposition without proof.
Aposteriori - Must be justification. Analytical.

Cause and Proof. Psychology as Cause of our thinking. Mathematics the Proof of our thinking. "Laws of Thought" and "Laws of Behaviour".

"Everyone... is presented to himself in a special and primary way, in which he is presented to no one else" (page 157)

Mode of Presentation. Two separate worlds. Interior/Private and Exterior/Public. Physical world accessible to all. The world of "ideas". 

DESCARTES. Belief in anything beyond Private. "Self Consciousness" Mind and Matter. "Idealist Scepticism". Nothing exists except my own Ideas.

"What if everything were only a dream, a play performed upon the stage of my consciousness" (page 158)

Science as "Third Realm" - addition to the World of Things and the World of Ideas.

Public World - PHYSICAL.
Private World - HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS.
Third World - WORLD OF THOUGHTS/IDEAS.

BERTRAND RUSSELL (1872-1970)

Empiricist. Godson of John Stuart Mill. "Problems of Philosophy" (1912). Knowledge by Acquaintance and Knowledge by Description. Objects cause "Sense Data".

"Introspection". Acquaintance with own thoughts, feelings and desires. Only way we can have knowledge of things experienced.

EDMUND HUSSERL (1859-1938)

"Epoche" (1907). DESCARTES Methodological Doubt. Denied Cogito. Existence of Extra Mental Reality. Own Consciousness certain, World of Matter dubious.  Separation of consciousness and objects in external world. "Transcendental Consciousness". World created by own experiences and fundamental assumptions. "The Life World"

"Consciousness is part of the world, with physical causes... the physical world is itself a creation of consciousness" (page 164)

LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN (1889-1951)

No way of recognising consciousness without reference to public world. "On Certainty" (1969). Suspicious of senses. Cartesian Doubt.

"If I am dreaming this remark is being dreamt as well... it is also being dreamt that these words have meaning" (page 166)

Language-Game. "p one must understand what is mean't be saying p" (page 165) Private Language. Distinction between Mistake (False Judgement) and False Belief (no real judgement made).

"Empirical Propositions" - Research. Deductive.
"Fluid Propositions" - Make up world picture. Not learn't by experience. Apriori.
"System of Verification" - Observation and Instruction. Cognitive aspect of experience. Practical.

"It is our acting, which lies at the bottom of the language game" (page 168)

Source:
Kenny, Anthony "Philosophy in the Modern World" (2007)